Questões de Concursos Primeiro Semestre

T E X T

Can you learn in your sleep?

Sleep is known to be crucial for learning and memory formation. What's more, scientists have even managed to pick out specific memories and consolidate them during sleep. However, the exact mechanisms behind this were unknown — until now.

Those among us who grew up with the popular cartoon "Dexter's Laboratory" might remember the famous episode wherein Dexter's trying to learn French overnight. He creates a device that helps him to learn in his sleep by playing French phrases to him. Of course, since the show is a comedy, Dexter's record gets stuck on the phrase "Omelette du fromage" and the next day he's incapable of saying anything else. This is, of course, a problem that puts him through a series of hilarious situations.

The idea that we can learn in our sleep has captivated the minds of artists and scientists alike; the possibility that one day we could all drastically improve our productivity by learning in our sleep is very appealing. But could such a scenario ever become a reality?

New research seems to suggest so, and scientists in general are moving closer to understanding precisely what goes on in the brain when we sleep and how the restful state affects learning and memory formation.

For instance, previous studies have shown that non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep — or dreamless sleep — is crucial for consolidating memories. It has also been shown that sleep spindles, or sudden spikes in oscillatory brain activity that canbe seen on an electroencephalogram (EEG) during the second stage of non-REM sleep, are key for this memory consolidation. Scientists were also able to specifically target certain memories and reactivate, or strengthen, them by using auditory cues.

However, the mechanism behind such achievements remained mysterious until now. Researchers were also unaware if such mechanisms would help with memorizing new information.

Therefore, a team of researchers set out to investigate. Scott Cairney, from the University of York in the United Kingdom, co-led the research with Bernhard Staresina, who works at the University of Birmingham, also in the U.K. Their findings were published in the journal Current Biology.

Cairney explains the motivation for the research, saying, "We are quite certain that memories are reactivated in the brain during sleep, but we don't know the neural processes that underpin this phenomenon." "Sleep spindles," he continues, "have been linked to the benefits of sleep for memory in previous research, so we wanted to investigate whether these brain waves mediate reactivation. If they support memory reactivation, we further reasoned that it could be possible to decipher memory signals at the time that these spindles took place."

To test their hypotheses, Cairney and his colleagues asked 46 participants "to learn associations between words and pictures of objects or scenes before a nap." Afterward, some of the participants took a 90-minute nap, whereas others stayed awake. To those who napped, "Half of the words were [...] replayed during the nap to trigger the reactivation of the newly learned picture memories," explains Cairney.

"When the participants woke after a good period of sleep," he says, "we presented them again with the words and asked them to recall the object and scene pictures. We found that their memory was better for the pictures that were connected to the words that were presented in sleep, compared to those words that weren't," Cairney reports.

Using an EEG machine, the researchers were also able to see that playing the associated words to reactivate memories triggered sleep spindles in the participants' brains. More specifically, the EEG sleep spindle patterns "told" the researchers whether the participants were processing memories related to objects or memories related to scenes.

"Our data suggest that spindles facilitate processing of relevant memory features during sleep and that this process boosts memory consolidation," says Staresina. "While it has been shown previously," he continues, "that targeted memory reactivation can boost memory consolidation during sleep, we now show that sleep spindles might represent the key underlying mechanism."

Cairney adds, "When you are awake you learn new things, but when you are asleep you refine them, making it easier to retrieve them and apply them correctly when you need them the most. This is important for how we learn but also for how we might help retain healthy brain functions."

Staresina suggests that this newly gained knowledge could lead to effective strategies for boosting memory while sleeping.

So, though learning things from scratch à la "Dexter's Lab" may take a while to become a reality, we can safely say that our brains continue to learn while we sleep, and that researchers just got a lot closer to understanding why this happens.

From: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/Mar/2018

T E X T

Can you learn in your sleep?

Sleep is known to be crucial for learning and memory formation. What's more, scientists have even managed to pick out specific memories and consolidate them during sleep. However, the exact mechanisms behind this were unknown — until now.

Those among us who grew up with the popular cartoon "Dexter's Laboratory" might remember the famous episode wherein Dexter's trying to learn French overnight. He creates a device that helps him to learn in his sleep by playing French phrases to him. Of course, since the show is a comedy, Dexter's record gets stuck on the phrase "Omelette du fromage" and the next day he's incapable of saying anything else. This is, of course, a problem that puts him through a series of hilarious situations.

The idea that we can learn in our sleep has captivated the minds of artists and scientists alike; the possibility that one day we could all drastically improve our productivity by learning in our sleep is very appealing. But could such a scenario ever become a reality?

New research seems to suggest so, and scientists in general are moving closer to understanding precisely what goes on in the brain when we sleep and how the restful state affects learning and memory formation.

For instance, previous studies have shown that non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep — or dreamless sleep — is crucial for consolidating memories. It has also been shown that sleep spindles, or sudden spikes in oscillatory brain activity that canbe seen on an electroencephalogram (EEG) during the second stage of non-REM sleep, are key for this memory consolidation. Scientists were also able to specifically target certain memories and reactivate, or strengthen, them by using auditory cues.

However, the mechanism behind such achievements remained mysterious until now. Researchers were also unaware if such mechanisms would help with memorizing new information.

Therefore, a team of researchers set out to investigate. Scott Cairney, from the University of York in the United Kingdom, co-led the research with Bernhard Staresina, who works at the University of Birmingham, also in the U.K. Their findings were published in the journal Current Biology.

Cairney explains the motivation for the research, saying, "We are quite certain that memories are reactivated in the brain during sleep, but we don't know the neural processes that underpin this phenomenon." "Sleep spindles," he continues, "have been linked to the benefits of sleep for memory in previous research, so we wanted to investigate whether these brain waves mediate reactivation. If they support memory reactivation, we further reasoned that it could be possible to decipher memory signals at the time that these spindles took place."

To test their hypotheses, Cairney and his colleagues asked 46 participants "to learn associations between words and pictures of objects or scenes before a nap." Afterward, some of the participants took a 90-minute nap, whereas others stayed awake. To those who napped, "Half of the words were [...] replayed during the nap to trigger the reactivation of the newly learned picture memories," explains Cairney.

"When the participants woke after a good period of sleep," he says, "we presented them again with the words and asked them to recall the object and scene pictures. We found that their memory was better for the pictures that were connected to the words that were presented in sleep, compared to those words that weren't," Cairney reports.

Using an EEG machine, the researchers were also able to see that playing the associated words to reactivate memories triggered sleep spindles in the participants' brains. More specifically, the EEG sleep spindle patterns "told" the researchers whether the participants were processing memories related to objects or memories related to scenes.

"Our data suggest that spindles facilitate processing of relevant memory features during sleep and that this process boosts memory consolidation," says Staresina. "While it has been shown previously," he continues, "that targeted memory reactivation can boost memory consolidation during sleep, we now show that sleep spindles might represent the key underlying mechanism."

Cairney adds, "When you are awake you learn new things, but when you are asleep you refine them, making it easier to retrieve them and apply them correctly when you need them the most. This is important for how we learn but also for how we might help retain healthy brain functions."

Staresina suggests that this newly gained knowledge could lead to effective strategies for boosting memory while sleeping.

So, though learning things from scratch à la "Dexter's Lab" may take a while to become a reality, we can safely say that our brains continue to learn while we sleep, and that researchers just got a lot closer to understanding why this happens.

From: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/Mar/2018

Fake news could ruin social media, but there’s still hope

by: Guðrun í Jákupsstovu

Camille Francois, director of research and analysis at Graphika, told the audience of her talk at TNW Conference:

“Disinformation campaigns, or fake news is a concept we’ve known about for years, but few people realize how varied the concept can be and how many forms it comes in. When the first instances of fake news started to surface, they were connected with bots. These flooded conversations with alternative stories in order to create noise and, in turn, silence what was actually being said”.

According to Francois, today’s disinformation campaigns are far more varied than just bots – and much harder to detect. For example, targeted harassment campaigns are carried out against journalists and human-rights activists who are critical of governments or big organizations.

“We see this kind of campaigns happening at large scale in countries like the Philippines, Turkey, Ecuador, and Venezuela. The point of these campaigns is to flood the narrative these people try to create with so much noise that their original message gets silenced, their reputation gets damaged, and their credibility undermined. I call this patriotic trolling.”

There are also examples of disinformation campaigns mobilizing people. This was evident during the US elections in 2016 when many fake events suddenly started popping up on Facebook. One Russian Facebook page “organized” an anti-Islam event, while another “organized” a pro-Islam demonstration. The two fake events gathered activists to the same street in Texas, leading to a stand-off.

Francois explains how amazed she is that, in spite of social media being the main medium for these different disinformation campaigns, actual people also still use it to protest properly.

If we look at countries, like Turkey – where there’s a huge amount of censorship and smear campaigns directed at human right defenders and journalists – citizens around the world and in those places still use social media to denounce corruption, to organize human rights movements and this proves that we still haven’t lost the battle of who owns social media.

This is an ongoing battle, and it lets us recognize the actors who are trying to remove the option for people to use social media for good. But everyday you still have people all over the world turning to social media to support their democratic activities. This gives me hope and a desire to protect people’s ability to use social media for good, for denouncing corruption and protecting human rights.

Adapted from:<https://thenextweb.com/socialmedia/2018/05/25/>. Access 09 Oct. 2018.

Glossary

bot: (short for "robot"): um programa automático que roda na Internet; to flood: inundar; trolling: fazer postagem deliberadamente ofensiva para provocar alguém; popping up: surgir, aparecer; stand-off: impasse: smear campaigns: campanhas de difamação.

Considere o texto a seguir para responder à questão.

Facebook’s new data policy: Answers to your privacy questions

Facebook, the world’s largest social network, revamped the policies it uses when collecting data on the more than 2 billion people who use it every month. As part of the new policy, released April 19, the company is also spelling out more clearly how it collects and uses that information about you.

Where does Facebook get information about me?

It finds this information from a mixture of photos, videos and thoughts you post on your timeline. It also gleans data from your interactions with Facebook friends, as well as the pages and posts you “like.” Plus, the company collects seven different kinds of information it takes from a phone, computer or tablet you’re using. That includes data about the version of software you’re running, how low your battery is and how much storage you have left on your device. On top of that, Facebook can access information about devices that are connected to the same network you’re on.

This kind of info is often used for something industry experts call fingerprinting, which is how websites identify you based on all the data they can collect from your device.

(Adaptado de https://www.cnet.com/news/facebook-data-policy-answers-to-your-privacyquestions-cambridge-analytica/. Publicado em: 21 abr. 2018.

Acesso em: 21 ago. 2018, às 16h31.)

Leia o trecho do livro A dança do universo, do físico brasileiro Marcelo Gleiser, para responder a questão.

Algumas pessoas tornam-se heróis contra sua própria vontade. Mesmo que elas tenham ideias realmente (ou potencialmente) revolucionárias, muitas vezes não as reconhecem como tais, ou não acreditam no seu próprio potencial. Divididas entre enfrentar sua insegurança expondo suas ideias à opinião dos outros, ou manter-se na defensiva, elas preferem a segunda opção. O mundo está cheio de poemas e teorias escondidos no porão.

Copérnico é, talvez, o mais famoso desses relutantes heróis da história da ciência. Ele foi o homem que colocou o Sol de volta no centro do Universo, ao mesmo tempo fazendo de tudo para que suas ideias não fossem difundidas, possivelmente com medo de críticas ou perseguição religiosa. Foi quem colocou o Sol de volta no centro do Universo, motivado por razões erradas. Insatisfeito com a falha do modelo de Ptolomeu, que aplicava o dogma platônico do movimento circular uniforme aos corpos celestes, Copérnico propôs que o equante fosse abandonado e que o Sol passasse a ocupar o centro do cosmo. Ao tentar fazer com que o Universo se adaptasse às ideias platônicas, ele retornou aos pitagóricos, ressuscitando a doutrina do fogo central, que levou ao modelo heliocêntrico de Aristarco dezoito séculos antes.

Seu pensamento reflete o desejo de reformular as ideias cosmológicas de seu tempo apenas para voltar ainda mais no passado; Copérnico era, sem dúvida, um revolucionário conservador. Ele jamais poderia ter imaginado que, ao olhar para o passado, estaria criando uma nova visão cósmica, que abriria novas portas para o futuro. Tivesse vivido o suficiente para ver os frutos de suas ideias, Copérnico decerto teria odiado a revolução que involuntariamente causou.

Entre 1510 e 1514, compôs um pequeno trabalho resumindo suas ideias, intitulado Commentariolus (Pequeno comentário). Embora na época fosse relativamente fácil publicar um manuscrito, Copérnico decidiu não publicar seu texto, enviando apenas algumas cópias para uma audiência seleta. Ele acreditava piamente no ideal pitagórico de discrição; apenas aqueles que eram iniciados nas complicações da matemática aplicada à astronomia tinham permissão para compartilhar sua sabedoria. Certamente essa posição elitista era muito peculiar, vinda de alguém que fora educado durante anos dentro da tradição humanista italiana. Será que Copérnico estava tentando sentir o clima intelectual da época, para ter uma ideia do quão “perigosas” eram suas ideias? Será que ele não acreditava muito nas suas próprias ideias e, portanto, queria evitar qualquer tipo de crítica? Ou será que ele estava tão imerso nos ideais pitagóricos que realmente não tinha o menor interesse em tornar populares suas ideias? As razões que possam justificar a atitude de Copérnico são, até hoje, um ponto de discussão entre os especialistas.

(A dança do universo, 2006. Adaptado.)

Entre 11 de fevereiro e 03 de junho de 2018, o Museu de Arte Moderna de Nova Iorque (MoMA) abrigou a primeira exposição nos Estados Unidos dedicada à pintora brasileira Tarsila do Amaral. Leia a apresentação de uma das pinturas expostas para responder às questões

The painting Sleep (1928) is a dreamlike representation of tropical landscape, with this major motif of her repetitive figure that disappears in the background.

This painting is an example of Tarsila’s venture into surrealism. Elements such as repetition, random association, and dreamlike figures are typical of surrealism that we can see as main elements of this composition. She was never a truly surrealist painter, but she was totally aware of surrealism’s legacy.

(www.moma.org. Adaptado.)

Releia o excerto a seguir, para a questão.

Tais órgãos ajudaram a dar as disposições institucionais do sistema brasileiro de C&T contemporâneo. Sistema este que apresenta sim muitas lacunas que dificultam a geração de sinergias e a ampliação das oportunidades inovativas domésticas.

O Escândalo do Petróleo

O petróleo está hoje praticamente monopolizado por dois imensos trustes, a Standard Oil e a Royal Dutch & Shell. Como dominaram o petróleo, dominaram também as finanças, os bancos, o mercado do dinheiro: e como dominaram o dinheiro, dominaram também os governos e as máquinas administrativas. Essa rede de dominação constitui o que neste livro chamamos os Interesses Ocultos.

O Brasil, com o seu imenso território em tantos pontos marcado de indícios de petróleo, constituía um perigo para esses trustes. Gustav Grossman, um geólogo que estudou secretamente as nossas possibilidades petrolíferas, escreveu na conclusão dum seu relatório reservado, feito por conta e uso dum desses trustes: Dada a sua área, a quantidade de petróleo do Brasil talvez seja maior que a de qualquer outro país do mundo.

Ora, se era assim, o negócio dos trustes tinha de ser acaparar terras potencialmente petrolíferas do Brasil e também catequizá-lo, convencê-lo de que em seus oito milhões e meio de quilômetros quadrados haverá tudo, menos petróleo.

Esses trustes nos conhecem. Sabem que o brasileiro é uma espécie de criança tonta, que realmente se interessa por jogo, farra, carnavais e anedotas fesceninas. Sabem que o Brasil não dá a mínima importância ao estudo, [...].

Os trustes sabem de tudo e sorriem lá entre si. Sabem que a partir de 1930 o brasileiro cada vez menos se utiliza do cérebro para pensar, como fazem todos os povos. Sabem que os nossos estadistas dos últimos tempos positivamente pensam com outros órgãos que não o cérebro: com o calcanhar, com o cotovelo, com certos penduricalhos, raramente com os miolos. Daí o desmantelo cada vez maior da administração pública; daí a bancarrota, a miséria horrível do povo. A miséria é tanta em certas zonas que a grande massa da população rural já está perdendo a forma humana. Há povoados inteiros de papudos e nos fundões de Goiás surgem as primeiras criaturas de rabo. Involução darwínica. [...]

Ao mesmo tempo, graças a uma hábil propaganda feita nas estradas de rodagem por meio das bombas gasoline, convenceriam o indígena bocó de que era absurdo existir petróleo no Brasil, porque “Ora! Ora! Então se aqui existisse petróleo pensa você que os americanos já não o tinham tirado?”

Para gente que pensa com outras partes do corpo que não o cérebro, argumentos dessa ordem valem ouro. Matam a questão. E quarenta milhões de criaturas passaram a repetir como papagaios os argumentos “estandardizados” que as bombas de gasolina forneciam de lambuja a cada comprador de essência.

Não era bastante. Tornava-se necessário meter ciência no meio. Organizar cientificamente o não-petróleo. Ora, o brasileiro tem uma concepção muito curiosa de ciência. Ciência é o que ele não entende. Se entende é besteira, não é ciência da legítima.

(LOBATO, Monteiro. O Escândalo do Petróleo.

São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1936. P.10-11)