Considere o seguinte enunciado extraído de um editorial econômico:

Considere o seguinte enunciado extraído de um editorial econômico: "The administration’s robust job growth metrics look spectacular on paper, provided one ig...

Q1113826 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • Ápice Consultoria • Prefeitura de Sobrado PB • Inglês • 2026

Considere o seguinte enunciado extraído de um editorial econômico:
"The administration’s robust job growth metrics look spectacular on paper, provided one ignores the systemic transition towards precarious, low-wage gig employment."
A intenção comunicativa predominante do autor ao estruturar o período dessa forma é:

a) ironizar as métricas oficiais de emprego, apontando que elas mascaram uma precarização estrutural do mercado de trabalho.
b) demonstrar que o crescimento de empregos no setor de tecnologia (gig economy) é puramente ilusório.
c) chancelar, de forma irrestrita, o sucesso das políticas públicas de emprego da administração.
d) defender a necessidade de digitalização dos relatórios econômicos para evitar distorções interpretativas.
e) propor uma reforma metodológica na coleta de dados estatísticos por parte dos órgãos governamentais.

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Equipe Gabarite EQUIPE
22/08/2026 • 15:17

Vamos direto ao ponto sobre o que essa questão cobra! O trecho diz que os números de emprego parecem espetaculares no papel, desde que se ignore o fato de que há uma transição sistêmica para empregos precários e de baixa remuneração na chamada gig economy (empregos temporários, freelancers, bicos, delivery, etc).

O autor constrói a frase de forma que há um contraste: por um lado as métricas são ótimas, mas isso só se sustenta 'desde que se ignore' a realidade da precarização. Essa estratégia é classicamente usada para fazer uma crítica irônica, mostrando que os números oficiais escondem uma situação problemática.

Vendo as alternativas:

A alternativa A fala em ironizar as métricas oficiais salientando que mascaram a precarização — é exatamente isso!

A alternativa B diz que o crescimento no setor de tecnologia é ilusório, mas o texto não especifica setor nem fala sobre ser 'puro' ilusionismo, e sim sobre a qualidade dos empregos.

A alternativa C fala sobre endossar o sucesso das políticas públicas, o que está fora do tom crítico do trecho.

A alternativa D fala em defender a digitalização dos relatórios, o que não faz parte do texto.

A alternativa E propõe reforma metodológica, mas a crítica é mais profunda e irônica do que uma mera proposta técnica.

Portanto, a alternativa correta é a letra A.

Questões sobre Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension

1

Q1113850 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • AMEOSC • Prefeitura de São Miguel do Oeste SC • Professor Língua Inglesa • 2026
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O texto seguinte servirá de base para responder à questão.

Peru's Nazca lines were paths for prehistoric culture: Japanese researchers

Tokyo, 16 Jan (EFE).- The mysteries shrouding Peru's Nazca Lines have intrigued scientists for decades. Now, a group of Japanese researchers has developed a new theory that the geoglyphs etched into the ground served as paths and routes. The lines forged into myriad figures of animals and plants straddle an area of 1,000 square kilometers of the immense Ica desert in southern Peru. They were created during the Nazca culture, a pre-Columbian archaeological culture that flourished between the 1st and 7th centuries BC. A research team led by Masato Sakai, of the University of Yamagata in western Japan, has discovered, with the help of local archaeologists, aerial images and drones, over 350 new etchings since 2004. Sakai says there are two types of geoglyphs, linear motifs that were created by removing the upper black stones to reveal the white earth underneath and raised lines that give the pictorial representations depth and that archeologists call relief lines. «The linear ones exist at the beginning and end of straight paths and can be used to travel from one valley to another (...) while the relief ones are on the sides of paths that are not straight and are usually etched on a slope,» the expert says. The meaning of the lines has long been up for debate. Some say they represented an astronomical calendar, others considered they were religious figures and some have even suggested that they serve as landing pads for UFOs. «I'm interested in letters,» Sakai says. «Everyone uses alphabets, but in Andean civilization, they didn't have that way of communicating, so I wanted to discover how they did (communicate).»

The researcher is convinced that the Nazca lines were used as a means of prehistoric communication

Despite their antiquity, the geoglyphs were not discovered until 1930 because these could only be appreciated with an aerial view or from some of the site's surrounding hills. The team of Japanese researchers started the project using satellite and aerial photos, and more recently using drones, and have now identified hundreds of figures, including a spider, a monkey, a hummingbird, a condor, a pelican, a gull, a snail, a whale, a snake and a llama. The team struck a deal with tech giant IBM in 2019 and have tapped into state-of-the-art artificial intelligence (AI) that could help reveal the location of more figures and help with deciphering their meaning. «It is always a hypothesis, but we hope that with AI we can check whether theories are correct or suggest better ones that coincide with the new data,» the expert adds. Finding all the figures, which according to the expert could be in the thousands, is key to their conservation from both the weather and mining and agriculture which is prevalent in the region. «For the people of Nazca, the geoglyphs are a source of pride because the city is not very big, but many people come to see the figures. When we find new ones, we share the information with the local people because we know that they will respect and defend them, because it is the work of their ancestors» Sakai says. EFE

https://efe.com/other-news/2023-01-16/nazca-lines/

Read the excerpt below:

"Everyone uses alphabets, but in Andean civilization, they didn't have that way of communicating, so I wanted to discover how they did (communicate)."

In the context of the text, Sakai's statement indicates that his research is concerned with:
- a) Proving that the Nazca civilization used an alphabet that has not yet been deciphered by modern researchers.
- b) Investigating how a society without alphabetic writing may have developed other systems of communication.
- c) Replacing archaeological interpretation with linguistic translation of ancient written records.
- d) Demonstrating that prehistoric societies were unable to communicate complex information without written language.
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2

Q1113847 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.
Canada: Educating in and for climate emergency

Climate change is the most urgent crisis facing our planet today. Youth have repeatedly called for action on tackling this crisis, including the implementation of climate change curricula in schools.

Canadian students are among those demanding improvement to the sparse and inconsistent delivery of climate change education. A study published in 2019 found that only about half of Canada’s ministries of education and about 60 per cent of school divisions in the country had sustainabilityspecific policy, with this understood to include governance, curriculum, facilities, research, and community outreach. When climate change topics are taught, key concepts are often missing such as the scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change, or a focus on impacts or solutions.

A recent countrywide survey of 4,035 respondents across the country highlighted the consequences of inadequate climate change education in schools. One-third of Canadians failed a 10-question knowledge quiz. Only around half knew greenhouse gases were the main cause of climate change. Few responded correctly that the average temperature has already increased by more than one degree Celsius. Despite their gaps in knowledge, the majority of survey respondents agreed that we are experiencing a climate emergency and that climate change education should be a high priority.

Ten percent of survey respondents were educators (406 people), and among this group, half said a lack of time is a barrier when attempting to include climate change education within the classroom. In fact, respected international organizations have noted that implementing climate change education in schools cannot continue to fall on the shoulders of overburdened teachers.

The traditional way of teaching doesn’t work for complex topics like climate change. Teachers need to shift towards student-directed inquiry and active, real-world learning. It’s not enough to simply quote scientific facts, as a focus on “doom and gloom” can intensify eco-anxiety. Best practices for climate change education include the opportunity to take personal and collective action.

(Karen S. Acton. http://theconversation.com, 07.03.2023. Adaptado)

The last paragraph suggests a way of teaching about climate change which should
- a) emphasize group-directed rather than individual-directed work.
- b) manage and mitigate students’ varied sources of anxiety.
- c) focus on more specific scientific knowledge.
- d) support interdisciplinarity as a way to solve complex problems.
- e) foster the development of students’ autonomy.
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3

Q1113846 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.
Canada: Educating in and for climate emergency

Climate change is the most urgent crisis facing our planet today. Youth have repeatedly called for action on tackling this crisis, including the implementation of climate change curricula in schools.

Canadian students are among those demanding improvement to the sparse and inconsistent delivery of climate change education. A study published in 2019 found that only about half of Canada’s ministries of education and about 60 per cent of school divisions in the country had sustainabilityspecific policy, with this understood to include governance, curriculum, facilities, research, and community outreach. When climate change topics are taught, key concepts are often missing such as the scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change, or a focus on impacts or solutions.

A recent countrywide survey of 4,035 respondents across the country highlighted the consequences of inadequate climate change education in schools. One-third of Canadians failed a 10-question knowledge quiz. Only around half knew greenhouse gases were the main cause of climate change. Few responded correctly that the average temperature has already increased by more than one degree Celsius. Despite their gaps in knowledge, the majority of survey respondents agreed that we are experiencing a climate emergency and that climate change education should be a high priority.

Ten percent of survey respondents were educators (406 people), and among this group, half said a lack of time is a barrier when attempting to include climate change education within the classroom. In fact, respected international organizations have noted that implementing climate change education in schools cannot continue to fall on the shoulders of overburdened teachers.

The traditional way of teaching doesn’t work for complex topics like climate change. Teachers need to shift towards student-directed inquiry and active, real-world learning. It’s not enough to simply quote scientific facts, as a focus on “doom and gloom” can intensify eco-anxiety. Best practices for climate change education include the opportunity to take personal and collective action.

(Karen S. Acton. http://theconversation.com, 07.03.2023. Adaptado)

No contexto do segundo parágrafo, são falsos cognatos as duas palavras contidas na alternativa:
- a) “facilities” e “policy”.
- b) “demanding” e “consensus”.
- c) “governance” e “curriculum”.
- d) “consensus” e “policy”.
- e) “facilities” e “governance”.
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4

Q1113845 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.
Canada: Educating in and for climate emergency

Climate change is the most urgent crisis facing our planet today. Youth have repeatedly called for action on tackling this crisis, including the implementation of climate change curricula in schools.

Canadian students are among those demanding improvement to the sparse and inconsistent delivery of climate change education. A study published in 2019 found that only about half of Canada’s ministries of education and about 60 per cent of school divisions in the country had sustainabilityspecific policy, with this understood to include governance, curriculum, facilities, research, and community outreach. When climate change topics are taught, key concepts are often missing such as the scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change, or a focus on impacts or solutions.

A recent countrywide survey of 4,035 respondents across the country highlighted the consequences of inadequate climate change education in schools. One-third of Canadians failed a 10-question knowledge quiz. Only around half knew greenhouse gases were the main cause of climate change. Few responded correctly that the average temperature has already increased by more than one degree Celsius. Despite their gaps in knowledge, the majority of survey respondents agreed that we are experiencing a climate emergency and that climate change education should be a high priority.

Ten percent of survey respondents were educators (406 people), and among this group, half said a lack of time is a barrier when attempting to include climate change education within the classroom. In fact, respected international organizations have noted that implementing climate change education in schools cannot continue to fall on the shoulders of overburdened teachers.

The traditional way of teaching doesn’t work for complex topics like climate change. Teachers need to shift towards student-directed inquiry and active, real-world learning. It’s not enough to simply quote scientific facts, as a focus on “doom and gloom” can intensify eco-anxiety. Best practices for climate change education include the opportunity to take personal and collective action.

(Karen S. Acton. http://theconversation.com, 07.03.2023. Adaptado)

According to the second paragraph, Canadian students believe the climate change education they have received is
- a) much outdated.
- b) too obvious.
- c) seriously mistaken.
- d) rather insufficient.
- e) completely distorted.
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5

Q1113844 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
📖 Texto associado ▼

Leia o texto para responder à questão.
Canada: Educating in and for climate emergency

Climate change is the most urgent crisis facing our planet today. Youth have repeatedly called for action on tackling this crisis, including the implementation of climate change curricula in schools.

Canadian students are among those demanding improvement to the sparse and inconsistent delivery of climate change education. A study published in 2019 found that only about half of Canada’s ministries of education and about 60 per cent of school divisions in the country had sustainabilityspecific policy, with this understood to include governance, curriculum, facilities, research, and community outreach. When climate change topics are taught, key concepts are often missing such as the scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change, or a focus on impacts or solutions.

A recent countrywide survey of 4,035 respondents across the country highlighted the consequences of inadequate climate change education in schools. One-third of Canadians failed a 10-question knowledge quiz. Only around half knew greenhouse gases were the main cause of climate change. Few responded correctly that the average temperature has already increased by more than one degree Celsius. Despite their gaps in knowledge, the majority of survey respondents agreed that we are experiencing a climate emergency and that climate change education should be a high priority.

Ten percent of survey respondents were educators (406 people), and among this group, half said a lack of time is a barrier when attempting to include climate change education within the classroom. In fact, respected international organizations have noted that implementing climate change education in schools cannot continue to fall on the shoulders of overburdened teachers.

The traditional way of teaching doesn’t work for complex topics like climate change. Teachers need to shift towards student-directed inquiry and active, real-world learning. It’s not enough to simply quote scientific facts, as a focus on “doom and gloom” can intensify eco-anxiety. Best practices for climate change education include the opportunity to take personal and collective action.

(Karen S. Acton. http://theconversation.com, 07.03.2023. Adaptado)

In the sentence from the first paragraph “Youth have repeatedly called for action on tackling this crisis, including improved climate change education.”, the underlined fragment means that youth, repeatedly, have
- a) proposed actions to mitigate climate change.
- b) demanded responses to climate emergency issues.
- c) asked for a climate change curriculum.
- d) discussed the effects of a warming planet.
- e) fought bravely for a safer future.
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6

Q1113843 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.
Canada: Educating in and for climate emergency

Climate change is the most urgent crisis facing our planet today. Youth have repeatedly called for action on tackling this crisis, including the implementation of climate change curricula in schools.

Canadian students are among those demanding improvement to the sparse and inconsistent delivery of climate change education. A study published in 2019 found that only about half of Canada’s ministries of education and about 60 per cent of school divisions in the country had sustainabilityspecific policy, with this understood to include governance, curriculum, facilities, research, and community outreach. When climate change topics are taught, key concepts are often missing such as the scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change, or a focus on impacts or solutions.

A recent countrywide survey of 4,035 respondents across the country highlighted the consequences of inadequate climate change education in schools. One-third of Canadians failed a 10-question knowledge quiz. Only around half knew greenhouse gases were the main cause of climate change. Few responded correctly that the average temperature has already increased by more than one degree Celsius. Despite their gaps in knowledge, the majority of survey respondents agreed that we are experiencing a climate emergency and that climate change education should be a high priority.

Ten percent of survey respondents were educators (406 people), and among this group, half said a lack of time is a barrier when attempting to include climate change education within the classroom. In fact, respected international organizations have noted that implementing climate change education in schools cannot continue to fall on the shoulders of overburdened teachers.

The traditional way of teaching doesn’t work for complex topics like climate change. Teachers need to shift towards student-directed inquiry and active, real-world learning. It’s not enough to simply quote scientific facts, as a focus on “doom and gloom” can intensify eco-anxiety. Best practices for climate change education include the opportunity to take personal and collective action.

(Karen S. Acton. http://theconversation.com, 07.03.2023. Adaptado)

The discussions in the text rest on information deriving largely from
- a) a recent journalist article.
- b) article reviews.
- c) research reports.
- d) interviews.
- e) school documents.
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7

Q1113842 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.

Assessment is perhaps one of the least understood areas of language teaching and learning. Students may see tests as a threat to their competence because they are afraid they will not perform well. Teachers often do not like to construct tests and are not altogether satisfied with the results when they do.

A more constructive view of language testing exists when (a) testing is undertood as an opportunity for interaction between teacher and student; (b) students are judged on the basis of the knowledge they have; (c) the criteria for success on the test are clear to students; (d) students receive a grade for their performance on a set of tests representing different testing methods (not just one!); (e) the tests are intended to help students improve their skills; (f) the results are discussed.

The seminal efforts by Canalle e Swain (1980) to operationalize Hymes’ (1972) communicative competence have provided a relevant set of criteria for describing tests. Tests should be seen as tapping one or more of the four components making up the construct of communicative competence: grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic and strategic competence.

(Andrew D.Cohen. Second language Assessment. IN: Marianne
Cerce-Murcia(ed). Teaching English as a second or foreign language.
Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2nd edition. 2001. Adaptado)

A avaliação da competência comunicativa deverá
- a) ser restrita a tarefas em pares ou grupos, para possibilitar a interação comunicativa autêntica entre aprendizes.
- b) ignorar as questões relativas ao conhecimento linguístico, já que erros gramaticais não são prioridade na metodologia comunicativa
- c) priorizar o conhecimento sistêmico já que, não importa o método, a precisão no uso da língua estrangeira será sempre exigida.
- d) solicitar aos alunos que usem o que aprenderam em aula para resolver um determinado problema compatível com a vida real.
- e) priorizar a verificação das habilidades orais, para que coerentemente corresponda aos objetivos de um programa de ensino comunicativo.
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8

Q1113840 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.

Assessment is perhaps one of the least understood areas of language teaching and learning. Students may see tests as a threat to their competence because they are afraid they will not perform well. Teachers often do not like to construct tests and are not altogether satisfied with the results when they do.

A more constructive view of language testing exists when (a) testing is undertood as an opportunity for interaction between teacher and student; (b) students are judged on the basis of the knowledge they have; (c) the criteria for success on the test are clear to students; (d) students receive a grade for their performance on a set of tests representing different testing methods (not just one!); (e) the tests are intended to help students improve their skills; (f) the results are discussed.

The seminal efforts by Canalle e Swain (1980) to operationalize Hymes’ (1972) communicative competence have provided a relevant set of criteria for describing tests. Tests should be seen as tapping one or more of the four components making up the construct of communicative competence: grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic and strategic competence.

(Andrew D.Cohen. Second language Assessment. IN: Marianne
Cerce-Murcia(ed). Teaching English as a second or foreign language.
Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle. 2nd edition. 2001. Adaptado)

In the fragment from the first paragraph, “Teachers often do not like to construct tests and are not altogether satisfied with the results”, the underlined word means
- a) entirely.
- b) positively.
- c) as a group.
- d) usually.
- e) apparently
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9

Q1113839 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.

Through practice and experience in an increasingly wide range of communicative contexts and events, learners gradually expand their communicative competence, consisting of grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociocultural competence and strategic competence. All these components are interrelated. An increase in one component interacts with other components to produce a corresponding increase in overall communicative competence.

Grammatical competence refers to sentence-level grammatical form, the ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic and phonological feature of a language and to make use of these features to interpret and form words and whole sentences. One demonstrates grammatical competence not by stating a rule but by using a rule in the interpretation, expression or negotiation of meaning.

Discourse competence is concerned not with isolated words or phrases but with the interconnectedness of a series of utterances, written words and/or phrases to build a text, a meaningful whole. Two familiar concepts to talk about discourse competence are text coherence and cohesion. Text coherence is the relation of all sentences or utterances in a text to a single global proposition. Local connections or structural links between individual sentences provide cohesion. Sociocultural competence extends well beyond linguistic forms and is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry having to do with the social rules of language use.

Sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social context where language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interation. And although we are far from an adequate description of sociocultural rules of appropriateness, we use them to communicate successfully in many different contexts of situation. Sociocultural competence also includes a willingness to suspend judgement and take into consideration the possibility of cultural differences in convention and use. Thus the importance of the term cultural flexibility or cultural awareness.

The ‘’ideal native speaker,’’ someone who knows a language perfectly and uses it appropriately in all social interactions, exists in theory only. None of us knows all there is to know of English in its many manifestations, both around the world and in our own backyards. Communicative competence is always relative. The coping strategies we use in unfamiliar contexts, with constraints due to imperfect knowledge of rules or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue or distraction, are represented as strategic competence. With practice and experience, we gain in grammatical, discourse, and socio-cultural competence. The relative importance of strategic competence thus decreases. However, the effective use of coping strategies is important for communicative competence in all contexts and distinguishes highly competent communicators from those who are less so.

(Sandra J. Savignon. Communicative language teaching for the
twenty-first century. IN: Marianne Celce-Murcia. Teaching English as a
second or foreign language. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle.
3rd edition. 2002. Adaptado)

As to the development of oral communicative competence, communicative language teaching advocates
- a) the recording of pair dialogues to which students can go in order to monitor their own learning.
- b) the proposal of problem-solving tasks which will provoke purposeful use of the target language.
- c) a selection of classroom material that meets individual students’ interests and needs.
- d) the non-correction of pronunciation errors, so as not to inhibit students’ willingness to speak the language.
- e) exclusive use of authentic material so as to give students the opportunity to practice coping strategies.
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10

Q1113838 • Inglês • Interpretação de Texto Reading Comprehension • VUNESP • Prefeitura de Peruíbe SP • Inglês • 2023
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Leia o texto para responder à questão.

Through practice and experience in an increasingly wide range of communicative contexts and events, learners gradually expand their communicative competence, consisting of grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociocultural competence and strategic competence. All these components are interrelated. An increase in one component interacts with other components to produce a corresponding increase in overall communicative competence.

Grammatical competence refers to sentence-level grammatical form, the ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic and phonological feature of a language and to make use of these features to interpret and form words and whole sentences. One demonstrates grammatical competence not by stating a rule but by using a rule in the interpretation, expression or negotiation of meaning.

Discourse competence is concerned not with isolated words or phrases but with the interconnectedness of a series of utterances, written words and/or phrases to build a text, a meaningful whole. Two familiar concepts to talk about discourse competence are text coherence and cohesion. Text coherence is the relation of all sentences or utterances in a text to a single global proposition. Local connections or structural links between individual sentences provide cohesion. Sociocultural competence extends well beyond linguistic forms and is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry having to do with the social rules of language use.

Sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social context where language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interation. And although we are far from an adequate description of sociocultural rules of appropriateness, we use them to communicate successfully in many different contexts of situation. Sociocultural competence also includes a willingness to suspend judgement and take into consideration the possibility of cultural differences in convention and use. Thus the importance of the term cultural flexibility or cultural awareness.

The ‘’ideal native speaker,’’ someone who knows a language perfectly and uses it appropriately in all social interactions, exists in theory only. None of us knows all there is to know of English in its many manifestations, both around the world and in our own backyards. Communicative competence is always relative. The coping strategies we use in unfamiliar contexts, with constraints due to imperfect knowledge of rules or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue or distraction, are represented as strategic competence. With practice and experience, we gain in grammatical, discourse, and socio-cultural competence. The relative importance of strategic competence thus decreases. However, the effective use of coping strategies is important for communicative competence in all contexts and distinguishes highly competent communicators from those who are less so.

(Sandra J. Savignon. Communicative language teaching for the
twenty-first century. IN: Marianne Celce-Murcia. Teaching English as a
second or foreign language. Boston, Massachusstes: Heinle&Heinle.
3rd edition. 2002. Adaptado)

“Coping strategies”, as mentioned in the last paragraph, refer to
- a) the approach adopted by speakers when facing a difficult communicative situation.
- b) the strategies language learners employ to try and avoid mistakes in grammar.
- c) the negotiation of meaning between language users in unfamiliar communicative contexts.
- d) specific techniques used by both language learners and fluent speakers to communicate properly.
- e) resources used by learners to make up for some deficient knowledge when trying to communicate.
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